Great Pacific War: A History of the American-Japanese Campaign of 1931-33 (22 page)

Carefully keeping up the pretence that the
Bear
was in a semi-sinking condition, Commander Nuzuki proceeded to berth her between two large warships, whose tall lattice masts indicated them to be of importance. But here the luck which had hitherto stood by the Japanese deserted them. To deceive casual observers and possible spies, the United States Navy Department had taken over from the Shipping Board a number of laid-up steamers which were unfit for long voyages, and had carefully disguised them with dummy funnels, lattice masts, wooden turrets, guns, and superstructures, until they closely resembled battleships of the
Arkansas
,
Utah
, and
New
York
types. In misty weather the illusion was complete, and Commander Nuzuki felt confident as he trained his tubes on his two neighbours that he was about to deal a smashing blow at American sea power. All four torpedoes struck the mark, as they could hardly fail to do, since less than half a cable’s length separated the
Bear
from the make-believe battleships on either side of her. The force of the explosions was so great that it threw the
Bear
, whose displacement was only 1,700 tons, almost on her beam ends. Although two anchors had been dropped, both cables parted under the sudden strain, and the little Coast-Guard cutter was flung heavily against the side of one of the dummy dreadnoughts. At the same time one of the lattice masts collapsed, covering the
Bear
with
débris
, and injuring most of those on her deck, including her commander. Patrol vessels speedily gathered round, some rescuing the small party of shipkeepers on board the sinking dummy ships, while others boarded the
Bear
. Commander Nuzuki had no alternative but to surrender, and his chagrin was great when he found that he had practically wasted four torpedoes on ships of no fighting value. Nor was he to be consoled by the openly expressed admiration of his captors, who fully appreciated the coolness and ability shown in manoeuvring the
Bear
into Dutch Harbour.

The
Isokaze
and
Yamakaze
, after waiting vainly for some hours in Unalaska Bay, eventually found their way back to Japan, where they reported that a number of torpedoes had exploded after the
Bear
had entered Dutch Harbour, with what results it was impossible to ascertain. The United States Navy Department kept all details of the affair secret, beyond a brief official announcement to the effect that the
Charleston
had been lost while navigating a narrow channel in misty weather, thus suggesting that the casualty was due to accident. At the same time it was purposely allowed to leak out in quarters suspected of communicating with the enemy that the
Charleston
had been torpedoed, and that two other vessels of greater importance had been sunk at the same time. This intelligence, which seemed to tally with the reports of the two destroyers, was eagerly accepted as fact by the Imperial Japanese Government, and embodied in a special
communiqué
to the Tokyo Press. In recognition of his supposed achievements Commander Nuzuki was awarded the third class of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, and promoted to the rank of Captain. These honours he had certainly merited by his endeavours, irrespective of the actual results.

From the American point of view the loss of the
Charleston
was more than counterbalanced by the misleading impression which was thus conveyed to the enemy. From this date until the end of the war many in Japan remained firmly convinced that two battleships were torpedoed at Dutch Harbour, and were readier than before to believe that an attack from the direction of Alaska was to be apprehended.

It is interesting to note that the
Bear
, which in spite of the damage she received was not sunk, still survives as a storeship at Dutch Harbour.

In the meantime it must not be imagined that the squadron of fast cruisers under Rear-Admiral Appleton had been idle. With the larger force which he had now at his command, this zealous officer proceeded to give effect to the second part of his instructions by preparing an attack upon the important Japanese trade with Australia. For this purpose the
Memphis
was detached with orders to intercept all homeward-bound Japanese ships passing through Torres Straits. At the end of a fortnight she was relieved by her sister ship
Milwaukee
. It was rightly calculated that news of the loss of one or two ships on this route would be sufficient to cause a panic in Japanese commercial circles, and force insurance rates up to an absolutely prohibitive level. The effects would have been even more far-reaching but for a Government insurance scheme which had been prepared at Tokyo in anticipation of possible difficulties with the marine insurance market.

The joint operations of the
Memphis
and
Milwaukee
covered a period slightly exceeding a month during March and April, 1932. In this time they accounted for no fewer than thirteen Japanese vessels, including three or four bound for Australia in ballast. Most of the prizes carried valuable cargoes, such as wool, frozen meat, hides, butter and grain, besides some lead and copper. It is probable that many more cargoes intended for Japan would have been intercepted, had not Admiral Appleton given directions to his captains to refrain from interference with property covered by neutral flags. His views on this subject were approved by the Operations Bureau, since it was feared that such action might easily generate friction between the United States and countries whose benevolent neutrality was of value.

American cruiser activities in Australian waters would certainly have been continued for a longer period had it not been found that the Japanese were diverting the bulk of their trade to neutral bottoms, their own tonnage being still employed on the longer route around the Western Australian coast to Perth, Adelaide, and Melbourne. Owing to its comparative remoteness, this trade was less easy to molest than that passing through Torres Straits. Moreover, by this date it was desired to assemble all available cruisers for purposes of more direct military importance; for the expedition against Truk was now about to be launched.

The only incident worth recording in connection with this brief war on Japanese Australasian trade was the attempted capture of the
Soyo
Maru
. This vessel, a steamer of some 7,000 tons dead weight belonging to the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, was keeping an inshore course when sighted by the
Memphis
. She refused to stop when fired on, and headed for the group of islands lying off Cape York. The captain of the
Memphis
, realising that unless he could stop the
Soyo
Maru
she would escape into Australian territorial waters, directed his gunners to aim at her stern, in the hope of crippling the steering gear. The sternpost was hit more than once, but the master of the
Soyo
Maru
, resolved to save his ship if he could, maintained his course at a speed approaching fifteen knots, the best of which she was capable. The
Memphis
was doing more than double this, and as she gained upon the chase the latter was hit more frequently, several casualties being inflicted in addition to structural damage. Finding that her afterpeak was leaking seriously, and that this was affecting her speed, the Japanese captain headed for a patch of shoal water which lay nearly athwart his course, and in a few minutes his ship was stranded on a sandbank about three miles from Mulgrave Island. The American cruiser was preparing to approach and enforce surrender, when a timely diversion was created by the appearance of the Australian destroyer
Tattoo
from Thursday Island, attracted by the sound of gunfire. On ascertaining the position of affairs, the commander of the Tattoo informed the American captain that since the shoal lay within territorial waters, the
Soyo
Maru
must be inviolate. Thus the intrepid master of the Japanese freighter succeeded in saving his ship, though it must have cost a considerable sum to pay for her salvage.

In European waters the trade war assumed a different character. It will be remembered that, owing to the dearth of regular cruisers, for the building of which the Navy Department had so often pleaded in vain before the war, a number of the fastest passenger steamers flying the Stars and Stripes had been armed for service as commerce destroyers. It was decided not to organise them in a single squadron, as first proposed, but that each ship on completion of her equipment should be dispatched to her cruising ground as an independent command, on the understanding that units must be ready to combine for joint action on receipt of instructions to that effect. As far as possible the original ship’s company was retained on board each vessel, the officers being given commissions in the Naval Reserve, while the executive control of the ship was vested in a captain or commander, United States Navy. Another naval officer was carried in the larger vessels as second-in-command, while a few skilled gunpointers were distributed among the crews with orders to train their own assistants. The armament usually consisted of 6-inch and 5-inch rapid-fire guns of old pattern, some being more or less worn pieces which had been removed from warships on replacement. Decks and bulkheads had to be stiffened to withstand the shock of discharge, while magazines and shell hoists were hastily improvised.

It was believed that only two of the large fleet of Japanese merchantmen engaged in trading between Europe and the Far East had a speed sufficient to stand much chance of escape from the majority of the American auxiliary cruisers. These two were the
Nagasaki
Maru
and
Shanghai
Maru
, both owned by the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, and built in 1923. Though comparatively small (5,272 tons gross), they were capable of steaming at twenty knots, a speed which the
Leviathan
, alone among the American ships, could exceed. Presumably the Japanese Government were alive to this circumstance, since it was about this time that the two liners in question received an armament of four high-powered 6-inch guns and two pairs of torpedo tubes. Unfortunately, this fact did not come to the knowledge of the United States Naval Intelligence Bureau until too late to be of any value.

The American auxiliary cruisers
Mount
Vernon
,
George
Washington
,
President
Madison
, and
President
Pierce
had orders to patrol the area between the Canary Islands and the coast of Norway, while the
Leviathan
was stationed in the neighbourhood of Brest as linking ship. This latter vessel served also as a transmitting station, through which the other cruisers were kept informed of all the known movements of enemy shipping. The cruising ground of each ship was modified from time to time in accordance with the requirements of the situation, but as a general rule the
Mount
Vernon
and
George
Washington
patrolled respectively to the north and south of the Straits of Gibraltar, the
President
Madison
and
President
Pierce
looking after the area north of the English Channel. The remaining three ships (
President
Cleveland
,
President
Jefferson
, and
President
Taft
) were not ready for sea until some time after the others. When commissioned they were formed into a squadron and dispatched to the Mediterranean, where in consequence of their activities Japanese tonnage soon ceased to pass through the Suez Canal. As soon as the American cruisers had snapped up all the enemy vessels they could find in the Mediterranean, they proceeded to the Red Sea, but without accomplishing much beyond showing the flag there, as their orders forbade them to go beyond Perim.

These operations gravely embarrassed the Japanese, who were threatened with the complete stoppage of their supplies from Europe, except in so far as neutral tonnage could be employed for the purpose. Here again American influence made itself felt by competing for the chartering of all suitable vessels as they came into the market, much to the satisfaction of neutral shipowners, who saw rates steadily rising with no apparent limit. Underwriters also benefited, as increasing rates of premium could be demanded for the insurance of these vessels against war risks.

CHAPTER XVI

Armed Japanese merchant vessels make their appearance in the Atlantic — Severe action with United States armed liners — Leviathan and George Washington lost and Mount Vernon captured — Insurrection in Hawaii quelled with the help of tanks — Gallant act of Lieutenant Logan — Inquiry into origin of revolt — American expedition from Samoa effects a landing at Truk

AMERICAN control of the situation in European waters had apparently been firmly established when the arrival at Madeira, on April 15, of the fast steamers
Nagasaki
Maru
and
Shanghai
Maru
suddenly put a new aspect on affairs. The two ships stayed only long enough to fuel and complete with fresh water and stores before proceeding on their voyage to London. The
George
Washington
, duly apprised of their movements by the United States Intelligence Service, was on the look-out for them, and sighted their smoke some eighty miles to the south-west of Cape St. Vincent. She rapidly closed with them at a speed of 18 knots, and was not surprised when they turned tail and made off to the westward. No suspicion appears to have been entertained that the enemy ships were armed, and rendered still more formidable by the installation of up-to-date fire control arrangements. Their guns were cleverly concealed behind dummy deckhouses when not in action.

The Japanese steamers allowed the
George
Washington
to overhaul them slowly until she was within a little over 12,000 yards, whereupon they so increased speed that no further advantage could be gained by the pursuer. The American vessel opened fire with her forward 6-inch guns, but found the range too great for accurate shooting. To her amazement the Japanese replied with telling effect, their well-judged salvos quickly dismounting one of the
George
Washington’s
guns and starting a fire forward. Turning about to bring her other guns into action, the American ship presented her full broadside to the enemy, offering a big target for their rapid salvos, which demolished the forward funnel and the navigating bridge. Under this storm of fire the remaining American guns were quickly knocked out, and the great ship was unable to send a single shot at her antagonists. These now approached closer, steaming round their hapless victim and pounding her mercilessly until she was in flames fore and aft, while few of her complement above the water line had escaped injury. Her radio cabin was demolished at an early stage, the last message dispatched being to the effect that she was in action with two enemy ships from whose fire she was suffering severely.

On receipt of this startling news the
Mount
Vernon
, which was at Lisbon, proceeded at her utmost speed to the last reported position of the
George
Washington
. That steamer when sighted was found to be completely disabled and burning furiously, so the new-comer found she must cope unaided with two opponents of equal speed and heavier armament. In these circumstances the captain of the
Mount
Vernon
deemed it wise to beat a retreat, since by so doing he drew the enemy away from his helpless consort, and towards the
Leviathan
, which his radio calls must soon bring to his assistance.

This stage of the action was protracted, as neither of the Japanese ships, with their bottoms fouled by the passage through the tropics, proved capable of catching the 20-knot
Mount
Vernon
; but they were able to keep her in sight until evening, when she ran into the port of Coruna, in the northwest of Spain. Here she was blockaded for some hours, until next day she received news by radio of the
Leviathan’s
approach. Anchor was then weighed, and the
Mount
Vernon
boldly attacked the blockading vessels, closing the range in order to use her guns with better effect. Though she succeeded in this, it was found that the Japanese shooting was more accurate, as in addition to their superior weapons and fire control installation, their guns’ crews were picked men. Still the
Mount
Vernon
was able to score several hits in spite of the punishment she was herself receiving, and her men were soon cheered by the appearance of the gigantic
Leviathan
, racing down from the northward. It is possible the battle might have ended differently, but for a fresh factor which was now brought into play by the Japanese. The action had developed into two single combats, the
Mount
Vernon
fighting the
Nagasaki
Mara
while the
Leviathan
engaged the
Shanghai
Marie
, both Americans doing their utmost to close the range in order to neutralise their opponents’ advantage in armament. To some extent they succeeded, as the speed of both enemy ships now began to fall off. Nevertheless, both the
Leviathan
and the
Mount
Vernon
were suffering numerous casualties, and it proved impossible to subdue the flames that broke out after almost every hit with high explosive shell. With her speed of twenty-three knots the
Leviathan
was the first to get to really close quarters, when she had the satisfaction of seeing the
Shanghai
Maru
suddenly veer off her course, describe an erratic segment of a circle, and approach the United States liner broadside to broadside, to all appearance out of control. Yet actually this proved to be a clever ruse on the part of the Japanese captain, who thus made an opportunity to discharge two torpedoes at the huge hull of his adversary. Their track was seen from the
Leviathan’s
bridge too late to avoid them by use of the helm, and both exploded in quick succession amidships, tearing gigantic rents in the starboard side between the second and third funnels. With water pouring into the stokeholds, the ship at once began to lose speed, a circumstance of which the
Shanghai
Maru
was quick to take advantage, drawing out of range before she could receive further punishment from the
Leviathan’s
guns.

All this time the
Mount
Vernon
and
Nagasaki
Maru
had been pounding away at each other on more or less level terms, for a lucky shot had crippled the Japanese ship’s steering gear, throwing her out of her course and disconcerting the aim of her gunners until the emergency hand wheel could be manned. But by now the
Mount
Vernon
herself had suffered severely, and when the
Shanghai
Maru
joined her sister, this reinforcement turned the scale. A further gallant attempt to close the range only resulted in an overwhelming fire being concentrated on the forecastle of the
Mount
Vernon
; her decks were ploughed up and half the bridge was blown away, together with much other superstructure, in the ruins of which the forward guns and their crews were buried. A dash was made for Spanish territorial waters, but the
Shanghai
Maru
had already contrived to edge away in that direction, and steaming ahead of the
Mount
Vernon
, so that the latter’s stern guns would not bear, she kept up a fire so hot that the American liner was soon in a deplorable plight. Her foremast went by the board, and trailing alongside was drawn into the wake, fouling the propellers and thus destroying all chance of escape. Her two enemies now took up positions from which they poured in a methodical and devastating fire.

In this extremity the survivors of the
Mount
Vernon
had no choice but to surrender, and a white flag was hoisted at the mainmast as a signal to the Japanese ships to cease fire. A boat immediately sped across from the
Shanghai
Maru
, (her sister apparently had none left undamaged), the Japanese officer in charge demanding unconditional submission. As there was no possibility of help arriving, these terms were perforce accepted, whereupon an armed guard took possession of the crippled American liner, while the
Shanghai
Maru
steamed off to ascertain what had become of the
Leviathan
. She found the great ship drifting helplessly, with a pronounced list to starboard. Passing neutral steamers offered their assistance, but it was considered dangerous to attempt towing, lest it should cause further bulkheads to give way. So a Norwegian steamer stood by in readiness to take off the
Leviathan's
crew in case of need, while the huge liner continued to drift in towards the coast. She eventually drove ashore close to Cape Finisterre, and, despite all efforts at salvage, became a total wreck — the largest ship lost throughout the war. The
George
Washington
, after being towed for a long distance by a French tug from Casablanca, broke adrift in heavy weather and went to pieces on the Morocco coast.

The
Nagasaki
Maru
and
Shanghai
Maru
took the
Mount
Vernon
into Vigo, where all three were busy for some days in repairing damages. No interference was to be feared from the
President
Madison
and
President
Pierce
, these ships having received radio instructions from Washington to do nothing until reinforcements were available. Since both vessels were inferior in force to those which had already been defeated, it would obviously have been folly to have allowed them to take the offensive. For the moment, therefore, the Japanese Naval Staff had scored a striking and unexpected success, due entirely to the prevision shown in making the utmost use of the best material that could be found. But, apart from its moral effect, very little permanent advantage was gained from this stroke, for American operations against Japanese trade had already inflicted severe losses which could not be recouped.

As an example of hard-fought duelling between armed merchant vessels, the events which have just been described were practically unique. In the war of 1914-18 the action in the South Atlantic between the
Carmania
and
Cap
Trafalgar
, and that in the North Sea between the
Alcantara
and
Greif
, afford the nearest parallels. Perhaps the most striking feature of this battle in the Atlantic was the remarkable capacity which the Japanese ships showed for withstanding punishment. It is believed that the Japanese naval authorities had inspired the original design of the
Nagasaki
Maru
and
Shanghai
Maru
, so that their construction in some respects approached the cruiser model. No other supposition adequately explains their astonishing powers of resistance to gunfire.

A more remote field of operations now claims our attention. Since the battle of Rotumah, described in the preceding chapter, all had gone smoothly with the preparations for the seizure of Truk. Troop movements between California, Hawaii, and Samoa had proceeded with regularity, and a sufficient number of trained soldiers had been assembled at the last-named point. All was in readiness for the next and most important step, when early in May news was received of an alarming insurrection in the Hawaiian group. Whether it originated locally or was inspired from Tokyo is a question which has never been satisfactorily settled; but there is no doubt that by some means a quantity of rifles had been smuggled into the islands and conveyed to a central point in Oahu, whence they were gradually distributed among the large Japanese population of the group, estimated at that date to number nearly 140,000 out of a total of some 330,000.

The contingency which now developed had been a source of anxiety to the authorities even before the war, and various plans for dealing with it had been mooted. Some had suggested transferring the entire Japanese population
en
bloc
to the United States in time of war, regardless of the difficulties of transport and accommodation which this drastic expedient involved. Another proposal was to form a concentration camp in the island of Niihua, although it is hard to see how such a vast multitude could have been housed and fed in such a restricted area. In the end the views of the local officials prevailed, and the Japanese were allowed to remain undisturbed at their occupations, which, being mainly agricultural and commercial, were in large measure essential to the economic welfare of the other inhabitants. If only the importation of arms had been prevented, there is no reason to suppose that any trouble would have occurred. But when thousand of able-bodied aliens with rifles in their possession are at large in a country which is at war with their own, it is only a question of time and opportunity before an explosion takes place.

The opportunity occurred in connection with the arrangements for training recruits drafted to Hawaii. Two battalions of infantry had been stationed in temporary barracks erected at a spot five miles to the north-east of Honolulu. Their arms, instead of being near at hand during the night, were piled in a building distant some hundred yards from their sleeping quarters. Sentries were posted, but being new to military life, these were not as alert as veterans would have been. It is impossible to acquit certain officers of culpable negligence in failing to make better arrangements for the safety of their station. The result of this supineness was that an armed body of Japanese, numbering several thousands, surprised the barracks on the night of May 17. They began by seizing the sentries at the armoury and taking possession of the weapons there. This done, the main portion of the barracks was surrounded and an entrance forced. Aroused from sleep and without arms, few offered much resistance, and those who did so were shot down without mercy, among the victims being the senior officer, Colonel Landauer, who thus paid for his carelessness with his life. So well had the Japanese plans been laid that not a man escaped to spread the alarm. The prisoners, confined under a strong guard, were marched away into the hills.